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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Introspection</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the psychological process. For other uses, see <a href="Introspection_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Introspection (disambiguation)">Introspection (disambiguation)</a>.</div>

<p><b>Introspection</b> is the examination of one's own <a href="Consciousness" title="Consciousness">conscious</a> <a href="Thought" title="Thought">thoughts</a> and <a href="Feeling" title="Feeling">feelings</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Schultz_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schultz-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, the process of introspection relies on the observation of one's <a href="Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">mental state</a>, while in a <a href="Spirituality" title="Spirituality">spiritual</a> context it may refer to the examination of one's <a href="Soul" title="Soul">soul</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Introspection is closely related to <a href="Human_self-reflection" class="mw-redirect" title="Human self-reflection">human self-reflection</a> and <a href="Self-discovery" title="Self-discovery">self-discovery</a> and is contrasted with <a href="Observation" title="Observation">external observation</a>.

</p><p>It generally provides a privileged access to one's own <a href="Mental_state" title="Mental state">mental states</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Seager_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seager-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> not mediated by other sources of knowledge, so that individual experience of the mind is unique. Introspection can determine any number of mental states including: sensory, bodily, cognitive, emotional and so forth.<sup id="cite_ref-Seager_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seager-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Introspection has been a subject of philosophical discussion for thousands of years. The <a href="Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a> <a href="Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> asked, "...why should we not calmly and patiently review our own thoughts, and thoroughly examine and see what these appearances in us really are?"<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While introspection is applicable to many facets of philosophical thought it is perhaps best known for its role in <a href="Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>; in this context introspection is often compared with <a href="Perception" title="Perception">perception</a>, <a href="Reason" title="Reason">reason</a>, <a href="Memory" title="Memory">memory</a>, and <a href="Testimony" title="Testimony">testimony</a> as a source of <a href="Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_psychology">In psychology</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wundt">Wundt</h3></div>

<p>It has often been claimed that <a href="Wilhelm_Wundt" title="Wilhelm Wundt">Wilhelm Wundt</a>, the father of experimental psychology, was the first to adopt introspection to <a href="Experimental_psychology" title="Experimental psychology">experimental psychology</a><sup id="cite_ref-Schultz_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schultz-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though the <a href="Methodology" title="Methodology">methodological</a> idea had been presented long before, as by 18th century German philosopher-psychologists such as <a href="Alexander_Gottlieb_Baumgarten" title="Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten">Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten</a> or <a href="Johann_Nicolaus_Tetens" class="mw-redirect" title="Johann Nicolaus Tetens">Johann Nicolaus Tetens</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later writers have warned that Wundt's views on introspection must be approached with great care.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wundt was influenced by notable <a href="Physiology" title="Physiology">physiologists</a>, such as <a href="Gustav_Fechner" title="Gustav Fechner">Gustav Fechner</a>, who used a kind of controlled introspection as a means to study human <a href="Sense" title="Sense">sensory</a> organs. Building upon that use of introspection in physiology, Wundt believed introspection included the ability to directly observe one's own experiences (not just to logically reflect on them or speculate about them, though some others misinterpreted his views in this way).<sup id="cite_ref-Asthana_244–248_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Asthana_244–248-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wundt imposed exacting control over the study of introspection in his experimental laboratory at the <a href="University_of_Leipzig" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Leipzig">University of Leipzig</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Schultz_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schultz-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> making it possible for other scientists to <a href="Reproducibility" title="Reproducibility">replicate</a> his experiments elsewhere, a development that proved essential to the development of psychology as a modern, <a href="Peer_review" title="Peer review">peer-reviewed</a> scientific discipline. Such exact purism was typical of Wundt. He prepared a set of instructions to be followed by every observer in his laboratory during studies of introspection: "1) the Observer must, if possible, be in a position to determine beforehand the entrance of the process to be observed. 2) the introspectionist must, as far as possible, grasp the phenomenon in a state of strained attention and follow its course. 3) Every observation must, in order to make certain, be capable of being repeated several times under the same conditions and 4) the conditions under which the phenomenon appears must be found out by the variation of the attendant circumstances and when this was done the various coherent experiments must be varied according to a plan partly by eliminating certain stimuli and partly by grading their strength and quality".<sup id="cite_ref-Asthana_244–248_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Asthana_244–248-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Titchener">Titchener</h3></div>

<p><a href="Edward_B._Titchener" title="Edward B. Titchener">Edward Titchener</a> was an early pioneer in experimental psychology and a student of Wilhelm Wundt.<sup id="cite_ref-Schultz_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schultz-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After earning his doctorate under Wundt at the University of Leipzig, he made his way to <a href="Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a>, where he established his own laboratory and research.<sup id="cite_ref-Schultz_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schultz-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Titchener arrived at Cornell in 1894, psychology was still a fledgling discipline, especially in the United States, and he was a key figure in bringing Wundt's ideas to America. However, Titchener misrepresented some of Wundt's ideas to the American psychological establishment, especially in his account of introspection which, Titchener taught, only served a purpose in the <a href="Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">qualitative</a> analysis of <a href="Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a> into its various parts,<sup id="cite_ref-Schultz_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schultz-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while Wundt saw it as a means to <a href="Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">quantitatively</a> measure the whole of conscious experience.<sup id="cite_ref-Schultz_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schultz-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Titchener was exclusively interested in the individual components that comprise conscious experience, while Wundt, seeing little purpose in the analysis of individual components, focused on synthesis of these components. Titchener's ideas formed the basis of the short-lived psychological theory of <a href="Structuralism_(psychology)" title="Structuralism (psychology)">structuralism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Schultz_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schultz-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_misconceptions">Historical misconceptions</h3></div>

<p>American <a href="Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a> of introspection, according to some authors,<sup id="cite_ref-Costal_2006_634–654_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Costal_2006_634–654-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Clegg_2013_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clegg_2013-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is dominated by three misconceptions. In particular, historians of psychology tend to argue 1) that introspection once was the dominant method of psychological inquiry, 2) that behaviorism, and in particular <a href="John_B._Watson" title="John B. Watson">John B. Watson</a>, was responsible for discrediting introspection as a valid method, and 3) that scientific <a href="Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> completely abandoned introspection as a result of those critiques.<sup id="cite_ref-Costal_2006_634–654_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Costal_2006_634–654-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, introspection may not have been the dominant method. It was widely believed to be dominant because <a href="Edward_B._Titchener" title="Edward B. Titchener">Edward Titchener</a>'s student <a href="Edwin_G._Boring" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwin G. Boring">Edwin G. Boring</a>, in his influential historical accounts of experimental psychology, privileged Titchener's views while giving little credit to original sources.<sup id="cite_ref-Costal_2006_634–654_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Costal_2006_634–654-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Introspection has been critiqued by many other psychologists, including <a href="Wilhelm_Wundt" title="Wilhelm Wundt">Wilhelm Wundt</a> and <a href="Knight_Dunlap" title="Knight Dunlap">Knight Dunlap</a>, who presented a non-behaviorist argument against self-observation.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Introspection is still widely used in psychology, but now implicitly, as self-report surveys, interviews and some fMRI studies are based on introspection.<sup id="cite_ref-Clegg_2013_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clegg_2013-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 4">: 4 </span></sup> It is not the method but rather its name that has been dropped from the dominant psychological vocabulary.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recent_developments">Recent developments</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Introspection_illusion" title="Introspection illusion">Introspection illusion</a></div>

<p>Partly as a result of Titchener's misrepresentation, the use of introspection diminished after his death and the subsequent decline of structuralism.<sup id="cite_ref-Schultz_1-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schultz-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later psychological movements, such as <a href="Functional_psychology" title="Functional psychology">functionalism</a> and <a href="Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">behaviorism</a>, rejected introspection for its lack of scientific <a href="Reliability_(statistics)" title="Reliability (statistics)">reliability</a> among other factors.<sup id="cite_ref-Schultz_1-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schultz-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Functionalism originally arose in direct opposition to structuralism, opposing its narrow focus on the elements of consciousness<sup id="cite_ref-Schultz_1-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schultz-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and emphasizing the purpose of consciousness and other psychological behavior. Behaviorism's objection to introspection focused much more on its unreliability and <a href="Objectivity_(science)" title="Objectivity (science)">subjectivity</a> which conflicted with behaviorism's focus on measurable behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-Schultz_1-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schultz-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The more recently established <a href="Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive psychology</a> movement has to some extent accepted introspection's usefulness in the study of psychological phenomena, though generally only in experiments pertaining to internal thought conducted under experimental conditions. For example, in the "<a href="Think_aloud_protocol" title="Think aloud protocol">think aloud protocol</a>", investigators cue participants to speak their thoughts aloud in order to study an active thought process without forcing an individual to comment on the process itself.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Already in the 18th century authors had criticized the use of introspection, both for knowing one's own mind and as a method for psychology. <a href="David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> pointed out that introspecting a mental state tends to alter the very state itself; a German author, <a href="Christian_Gottfried_Sch%C3%BCtz" title="Christian Gottfried Schütz">Christian Gottfried Schütz</a>, noted that introspection is often described as mere "inner sensation", but actually requires also attention, that introspection does not get at unconscious mental states, and that it cannot be used naively — one needs to know what to look for. <a href="Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> added that, if they are understood too narrowly, introspective experiments are impossible. Introspection delivers, at best, hints about what goes on in the mind; it does not suffice to justify knowledge claims about the mind.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, the idea continued to be discussed between <a href="John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a> and <a href="Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a>. Recent psychological research on <a href="Cognition" title="Cognition">cognition</a> and <a href="Attribution_(psychology)" title="Attribution (psychology)">attribution</a> has asked people to report on their mental processes, for instance to say why they made a particular choice or how they arrived at a judgment. In some situations, these reports are clearly <a href="Confabulation" title="Confabulation">confabulated</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-telling_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-telling-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, people justify choices they have not in fact made.<sup id="cite_ref-something_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-something-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such results undermine the idea that those verbal reports are based on direct introspective access to mental content. Instead, judgements about one's own mind seem to be <a href="Inference" title="Inference">inferences</a> from overt behavior, similar to judgements made about another person.<sup id="cite_ref-telling_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-telling-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it is hard to assess whether these results only apply to unusual experimental situations, or if they reveal something about everyday introspection.<sup id="cite_ref-knowing_more_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-knowing_more-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The theory of the <a href="Adaptive_unconscious" title="Adaptive unconscious">adaptive unconscious</a> suggests that a very large proportion of mental processes, even "high-level" processes like goal-setting and decision-making, are inaccessible to introspection.<sup id="cite_ref-annreview_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-annreview-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

Indeed, it is questionable how confident researchers can be in their own introspections.

</p><p>One of the central implications of dissociations between <a href="Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a> and <a href="Metacognition" title="Metacognition">meta-consciousness</a> is that individuals, presumably including researchers, can misrepresent their experiences to themselves. Jack and Roepstorff assert, '...there is also a sense in which subjects simply cannot be wrong about their own experiential states.' Presumably they arrived at this conclusion by drawing on the seemingly self-evident quality of their own introspections, and assumed that it must equally apply to others. However, when we consider research on the topic, this conclusion seems less self-evident. If, for example, extensive introspection can cause people to make decisions that they later regret, then one very reasonable possibility is that the introspection caused them to 'lose touch with their feelings'. In short, empirical studies suggest that people can fail to appraise adequately (i.e. are wrong about) their own experiential states.

</p><p>Another question in regards to the veracious accountability of introspection is if researchers lack the confidence in their own introspections and those of their participants, then how can it gain legitimacy? Three strategies are accountable: identifying behaviors that establish credibility, finding common ground that enables mutual understanding, and developing a trust that allows one to know when to give the benefit of the doubt.

That is to say, that words are only meaningful if validated by one's actions; When people report strategies, feelings or beliefs, their behaviors must correspond with these statements if they are to be believed.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Even when their introspections are uninformative, people still give confident descriptions of their mental processes, being "unaware of their unawareness".<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This phenomenon has been termed the <i>introspection illusion</i> and has been used to explain some <a href="Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">cognitive biases</a><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and belief in some <a href="Paranormal" title="Paranormal">paranormal</a> phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-selfismagic_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-selfismagic-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When making judgements about themselves, subjects treat their own introspections as reliable, whereas they judge other people based on their behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-blindspot_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blindspot-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can lead to <a href="Illusory_superiority" title="Illusory superiority">illusions of superiority</a>. For example, people generally see themselves as less <a href="Conformity" title="Conformity">conformist</a> than others, and this seems to be because they do not introspect any urge to conform.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another reliable finding is that people generally see themselves as <a href="Bias_blind_spot" title="Bias blind spot">less biased than everyone else</a>, because they are not likely to introspect any biased thought processes.<sup id="cite_ref-blindspot_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blindspot-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>One experiment tried to give their subjects access to others' introspections. They made audio recordings of subjects who had been told to say whatever came into their heads as they answered a question about their own bias.<sup id="cite_ref-blindspot_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blindspot-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although subjects persuaded themselves they were unlikely to be biased, their introspective reports did not sway the assessments of observers. When subjects were explicitly told to avoid relying on introspection, their assessments of their own bias became more realistic.<sup id="cite_ref-blindspot_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blindspot-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_religion">In religion</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Buddhism">Buddhism</h3></div>

<p>In <a href="Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, <i><a href="Sampaja%C3%B1%C3%B1a" title="Sampajañña">Sampajañña</a></i> refers to "the mental process by which one continuously monitors one's own body and mind. In the practice of <i>śamatha</i>, its principal function is to note the occurrence of laxity and excitation."<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is of central importance for meditative practice in all <a href="Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">Buddhist traditions</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Judaism">Judaism</h3></div>

<p>In <a href="Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>, particularly in the teachings of the <a href="Musar_movement" title="Musar movement">practitioners of Mussar</a> a person could achieve progress in perfecting their character traits through a daily "Cheshbon Hanefesh," or Accounting of the Soul. In the practice of Cheshbon Hanefesh, a person introspects about themselves, their day, their faults, progress, and so on, and over time can use the data and process to change behavior and thoughts. Introspection is encouraged during the penitent season in the month of <a href="Elul" title="Elul">Elul</a> in order to correct the year's sins through repentance, which in Judaism begins with recalling and recognizing them.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christianity">Christianity</h3></div>

<p>In <a href="Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, <a href="Christian_perfection" title="Christian perfection">perfection</a> is not just the possession and preservation of <a href="Sanctifying_grace" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanctifying grace">sanctifying grace</a>, since perfection is determined by one's action, although <a href="Christian_mysticism" title="Christian mysticism">Christian mysticism</a> has gained a renewed interest in <a href="Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">western Christianity</a> and is prominent in <a href="Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">eastern Christianity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In <a href="Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern Christianity</a> some concepts addressing human needs, such as sober introspection <i>(<a href="Nepsis" title="Nepsis">nepsis</a></i>), require watchfulness of the human heart and the conflicts of the human <i><a href="Nous" title="Nous">nous</a></i>, heart or mind. <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/noetic" class="extiw external" title="wikt:noetic">Noetic</a> understanding can not be achieved by rational or discursive thought (i.e. systemization).

</p><p>Rationalists view prayer as a way to help train a person to focus on divinity through philosophy and intellectual contemplation (<a href="Meditation" title="Meditation">meditation</a>).

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jainism">Jainism</h3></div>

<p><a href="Jainism" title="Jainism">Jains</a> practise <i><a href="Pratikraman" class="mw-redirect" title="Pratikraman">pratikraman</a></i> (<a href="Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> "introspection"), a process of repentance of wrongdoings during their daily life, and remind themselves to refrain from doing so again. Devout Jains often do Pratikraman at least twice a day. Many practice Pratikraman on holy days such as <a href="Samvatsari" title="Samvatsari">Samvatsari</a>, or Forgiveness Day.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hinduism">Hinduism</h3></div>

<p>Introspection is encouraged in schools such as <a href="Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita Vedanta</a>; in order for one to know their own true nature, they need to reflect and introspect on their true nature—which is what <a href="Meditation" title="Meditation">meditation</a> is. Especially, <a href="Swami_Chinmayananda" class="mw-redirect" title="Swami Chinmayananda">Swami Chinmayananda</a> emphasised the role of introspection in five stages, outlined in his book "Self Unfoldment."

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islam">Islam</h3></div>

<p>In <a href="Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, <i><a href="Jihad" title="Jihad">greater jihad</a></i> is the exertion of effort to internally struggle against one's evil inclinations.<sup id="cite_ref-DeLong-Bas_2018_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeLong-Bas_2018-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism</a>, <i><a href="Nafs" title="Nafs">nafs</a></i> is in its unrefined state "the ego", which is considered to be the lowest dimension of a person's inward existence—his animal and satanic nature.<sup id="cite_ref-Chittick_1983_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chittick_1983-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_fiction">In fiction</h2></div>

<p><i>Interior <a href="Monologue" title="Monologue">monologue</a></i> is the fiction-writing <a href="Mode_(literature)" title="Mode (literature)">mode</a> used to convey a character's silent thoughts, which may include introspective thoughts. As explained by Renni Browne and Dave King, "One of the great gifts of literature is that it allows for the expression of unexpressed thoughts..."<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>According to <a href="Nancy_Kress" title="Nancy Kress">Nancy Kress</a>, a character's thoughts can greatly enhance a story: deepening characterization, increasing tension, and widening the scope of a story.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As outlined by Jack M. Bickham, thought plays a critical role in both <a href="Scene_(drama)" class="mw-redirect" title="Scene (drama)">scene</a> and <a href="Sequel" title="Sequel">sequel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

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<ul><li><a href="Conceptual_proliferation" title="Conceptual proliferation">Conceptual proliferation</a></li>

<li><a href="Generation_effect" title="Generation effect">Generation effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_self-reflection" class="mw-redirect" title="Human self-reflection">Human self-reflection</a></li>

<li><a href="Insight" title="Insight">Insight</a></li>

<li><a href="Intrapersonal_communication" title="Intrapersonal communication">Intrapersonal communication</a></li>

<li><a href="Introversion" class="mw-redirect" title="Introversion">Introversion</a></li>

<li><a href="Know_thyself" title="Know thyself">Know thyself</a></li>

<li><a href="Mode_(literature)" title="Mode (literature)">Mode (literature)</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychological_mindedness" title="Psychological mindedness">Psychological mindedness</a></li>

<li><a href="Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology (philosophy)</a></li>

<li><a href="Phenomenology_(psychology)" title="Phenomenology (psychology)">Phenomenology (psychology)</a></li>

<li><a href="Pratikramana" title="Pratikramana">Pratikramana</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychonautics" title="Psychonautics">Psychonautics</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychophysics" title="Psychophysics">Psychophysics</a></li>

<li><a href="Rumination_(psychology)" title="Rumination (psychology)">Rumination (psychology)</a></li>

<li><a href="Self-awareness" title="Self-awareness">Self-awareness</a></li>

<li><a href="Self-consciousness" title="Self-consciousness">Self-consciousness</a></li>

<li><a href="Self-discovery" title="Self-discovery">Self-discovery</a></li>

<li><a href="Stream_of_consciousness_(psychology)" title="Stream of consciousness (psychology)">Stream of consciousness</a></li>

<li><a href="Style_(fiction)" class="mw-redirect" title="Style (fiction)">Style (fiction)</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFSchultzSchultz,_S._E.2012" class="citation book cs1">Schultz, D. P.; Schultz, S. E. (2012). <i>A history of modern psychology (10th ed.)</i>. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. pp. <span class="nowrap">67–</span>77, <span class="nowrap">88–</span>100. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-133-31624-4</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/psychology">"psychology | Origin and meaning of psychology by Online Etymology Dictionary"</a>. <i>www.etymonline.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-09-05</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Seager-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Seager_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seager_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"Encyclopedia of Consciousness". January 2009: <span class="nowrap">187–</span>199. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-012373873-8.00071-2">10.1016/B978-012373873-8.00071-2</a>.</cite> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite journal}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (help)</span></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="Theaetetus_(dialogue)" title="Theaetetus (dialogue)">Theaetetus</a></i>, 155.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Perner et al. (2007). "<i>Introspection & remembering</i>", Synthese, Springer.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Epistemology. (2005). In <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Retrieved from <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology/#SOU">http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology/#SOU</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cf. Thomas Sturm, <i>Kant und die Wissenschaften vom Menschen</i> (Paderborn: Mentis, 2009), ch. 2.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFDanziger1980" class="citation journal cs1">Danziger, Kurt (1980). "The History of Introspection Reconsidered". <i>Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences</i>. <b>16</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">241–</span>262. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F1520-6696%28198007%2916%3A3%3C241%3A%3Aaid-jhbs2300160306%3E3.0.co%3B2-o">10.1002/1520-6696(198007)16:3<241::aid-jhbs2300160306>3.0.co;2-o</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11610711">11610711</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Asthana_244–248-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Asthana_244–248_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Asthana_244–248_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFAsthana2015" class="citation journal cs1">Asthana, Hari Shanker (June 2015). "Wilhelm Wundt". <i>Psychological Studies</i>. <b>60</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">244–</span>248. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12646-014-0295-1">10.1007/s12646-014-0295-1</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:189774028">189774028</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Costal_2006_634–654-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Costal_2006_634–654_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Costal_2006_634–654_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Costal_2006_634–654_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFCostal2006" class="citation journal cs1">Costal, A (2006). "'Introspectionism' and the mythical origins of scientific psychology". <i>Consciousness and Cognition</i>. <b>15</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">634–</span>654. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.concog.2006.09.008">10.1016/j.concog.2006.09.008</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17174788">17174788</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17381488">17381488</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Clegg_2013-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Clegg_2013_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clegg_2013_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFClegg2013" class="citation book cs1">Clegg, Joshua W. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DSFWDwAAQBAJ"><i>Self-Observation in the Social Sciences</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-351-29678-6</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFDunlap1912" class="citation journal cs1">Dunlap, Knight (1912). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/h0071571">"Discussion: The case against introspection"</a></span>. <i>Psychological Review</i>. <b>19</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">404–</span>413. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0071571">10.1037/h0071571</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1939-1471">1939-1471</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFWilsonKeil,_Frank_C.2001" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, Robert Andrew; Keil, Frank C., eds. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-wt1aZrGXLYC"><i>The MIT Encyclopedia of the Cognitive Sciences</i></a>. Cambridge, Massachusetts. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780262731447</bdi>.</cite><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)</span></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHayes1986" class="citation journal cs1">Hayes, S. C. (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1348244">"The case of the silent dog—Verbal reports and the analysis of rules: A review of Ericsson and Simon's Protocol Analysis: Verbal Reports as Data"</a>. <i>Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior</i>. <b>45</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">351–</span>363. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1901%2Fjeab.1986.45-351">10.1901/jeab.1986.45-351</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1348244">1348244</a></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cf. Thomas Sturm, <i>Kant und die Wissenschaften vom Menschen</i> (Paderborn: Mentis, 2009), chapters 2 and 4.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-telling-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-telling_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-telling_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFNisbettTimothy_D._Wilson1977" class="citation journal cs1">Nisbett, Richard E.; Timothy D. Wilson (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/92167/1/TellingMoreThanWeCanKnow.pdf">"Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports on mental processes"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Psychological Review</i>. <b>84</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">231–</span>259. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0033-295x.84.3.231">10.1037/0033-295x.84.3.231</a>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027.42%2F92167">2027.42/92167</a></span>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7742203">7742203</a>.</cite>, reprinted in <cite id="CITEREFDavid_Lewis_Hamilton2005" class="citation book cs1">David Lewis Hamilton, ed. (2005). <i>Social cognition: key readings</i>. Psychology Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-86377-591-8</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-something-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-something_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFJohanssonLars_HallSverker_SikströmBetty_Tärning2006" class="citation journal cs1">Johansson, Petter; Lars Hall; Sverker Sikström; Betty Tärning; Andreas Lind (2006). "How something can be said about telling more than we can know: On choice blindness and introspection". <i>Consciousness and Cognition</i>. <b>15</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">673–</span>692. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.concog.2006.09.004">10.1016/j.concog.2006.09.004</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17049881">17049881</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14863202">14863202</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-knowing_more-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-knowing_more_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFWhite1988" class="citation journal cs1">White, Peter A. (1988). "Knowing more about what we can tell: 'Introspective access' and causal report accuracy 10 years later". <i>British Journal of Psychology</i>. <b>79</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">13–</span>45. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.2044-8295.1988.tb02271.x">10.1111/j.2044-8295.1988.tb02271.x</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-annreview-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-annreview_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFWilsonElizabeth_W._Dunn2004" class="citation journal cs1">Wilson, Timothy D.; Elizabeth W. Dunn (2004). "Self-Knowledge: Its Limits, Value, and Potential for Improvement". <i><a href="Annual_Review_of_Psychology" title="Annual Review of Psychology">Annual Review of Psychology</a></i>. <b>55</b>: <span class="nowrap">493–</span>518. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.psych.55.090902.141954">10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.141954</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14744224">14744224</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSchooler2002" class="citation journal cs1">Schooler, Jonathan W. (2002). "Establishing a legitimate relationship with introspection". <i>Trends in Cognitive Sciences</i>. <b>6</b> (9): <span class="nowrap">371–</span>372. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1364-6613%2802%2901970-8">10.1016/S1364-6613(02)01970-8</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12200175">12200175</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:45055944">45055944</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFWilsonYoav_Bar-Anan2008" class="citation journal cs1">Wilson, Timothy D.; Yoav Bar-Anan (August 22, 2008). "The Unseen Mind". <i>Science</i>. <b>321</b> (5892): <span class="nowrap">1046–</span>1047. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1163029">10.1126/science.1163029</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18719269">18719269</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11434647">11434647</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPronin2007" class="citation journal cs1">Pronin, Emily (January 2007). "Perception and misperception of bias in human judgment". <i>Trends in Cognitive Sciences</i>. <b>11</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">37–</span>43. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tics.2006.11.001">10.1016/j.tics.2006.11.001</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1364-6613">1364-6613</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17129749">17129749</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2754235">2754235</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-selfismagic-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-selfismagic_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFWegner2008" class="citation book cs1">Wegner, Daniel M. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170120195419/http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic67047.files/2_13_07_Wegner.pdf">"Self is Magic"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In John Baer; <a href="James_C._Kaufman" title="James C. Kaufman">James C. Kaufman</a>; <a href="Roy_F._Baumeister" class="mw-redirect" title="Roy F. Baumeister">Roy F. Baumeister</a> (eds.). <i>Are we free?: psychology and free will</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-19-518963-6</bdi>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic67047.files/2_13_07_Wegner.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2017-01-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-07-02</span></span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-blindspot-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-blindspot_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-blindspot_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-blindspot_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-blindspot_24-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFProninMatthew_B._Kugler2007" class="citation journal cs1">Pronin, Emily; Matthew B. Kugler (July 2007). "Valuing thoughts, ignoring behavior: The introspection illusion as a source of the bias blind spot". <i>Journal of Experimental Social Psychology</i>. <b>43</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">565–</span>578. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jesp.2006.05.011">10.1016/j.jesp.2006.05.011</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-1031">0022-1031</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFProninJonah_BergerSarah_Molouki2007" class="citation journal cs1">Pronin, Emily; Jonah Berger; Sarah Molouki (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1400&context=marketing_papers">"Alone in a Crowd of Sheep: Asymmetric Perceptions of Conformity and Their Roots in an Introspection Illusion"</a>. <i>Journal of Personality and Social Psychology</i>. <b>92</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">585–</span>595. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0022-3514.92.4.585">10.1037/0022-3514.92.4.585</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-3514">0022-3514</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17469946">17469946</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFWallace2016" class="citation book cs1">Wallace, B. Alan (2016). <i>Heart of the Great Perfection</i>. MA, USA: Wisdom publications. pp. 629 (e-book). <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-61429-236-4</bdi>. <q>Glossary=introspection (Tib. shes bzhin, Skt. saṃprajanya). The mental process by which one monitors one's own body and mind. In the practice of śamatha, its principal function is to note the occurrence of laxity and excitation.</q></cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFDevine1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Devine, Arthur (1911). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11665b.htm">"Christian and Religious Perfection"</a>. <i>The Catholic Encyclopedia</i>. Vol. 11. Robert Appleton Company<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 9,</span> 2016</span>.</cite></span>

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</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFBoring1953" class="citation journal cs1">Boring, Edwin G. (1953). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110610232731/http://www-psych.stanford.edu/~knutson/aaa/boring53.pdf">"A history of introspection"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Psychological Bulletin</i>. <b>50</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">169–</span>189. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0090793">10.1037/h0090793</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13056096">13056096</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-psych.stanford.edu/~knutson/aaa/boring53.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2011-06-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-07-17</span></span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGillespie2006" class="citation journal cs1">Gillespie, Alex (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dspace.stir.ac.uk/bitstream/1893/705/1/Gillespie_The-ghost-in-Descartes-schemeDRAFT.pdf">"Descartes' demon: A dialogical analysis of 'Meditations on First Philosophy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Theory & Psychology</i>. <b>16</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">761–</span>781. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0959354306070527">10.1177/0959354306070527</a>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1893%2F705">1893/705</a></span>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144046196">144046196</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGillespie,_Alex2007" class="citation book cs1">Gillespie, Alex (2007). Valsiner, Jaan; Rosa, Alberto (eds.). <i>The social basis of self-reflection</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">678–</span>691.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFJack,_AnthonyRoepstorff,_Andreas2003" class="citation book cs1">Jack, Anthony; Roepstorff, Andreas, eds. (2003). <i>Trusting the subject?: The use of introspective evidence in cognitive science</i>. Imprint Academic. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-907845-56-0</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWilson,_Timothy2002" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, Timothy (2002). <i>Strangers to Ourselves: Discovering the Adaptive Unconscious</i>. Cambridge: Belknap Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-674-00936-3</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWilsonSara_D._Hodges1992" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, Timothy D. Wilson; Sara D. Hodges (1992). "Attitudes as Temporary Constructions". In Leonard L. Martin; Abraham Tesser (eds.). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/constructionofso0000unse"><i>The Construction of social judgments</i></a></span>. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8058-1149-0</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Introspection" class="extiw external" title="q:Special:Search/Introspection">Introspection</a></b></i>.</div></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/introspection" class="extiw external" title="wiktionary:introspection">introspection</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFSchwitzgebel" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="Eric_Schwitzgebel" title="Eric Schwitzgebel">Schwitzgebel, Eric</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/introspection/">"Introspection"</a>. In <a href="Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iep.utm.edu/i/introspe.htm">Introspection</a> entry by Amy Kind in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://productive.fish/blog/introspection/">What is Introspection</a>, What Is Introspection In Psychology, The Benefits Of Introspection</li></ul>

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</style><div id="Psychology908" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background:#DFEBFF;"><div>

<ul><li><a href="History_of_psychology" title="History of psychology">History</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Philosophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Portal%3APsychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Portal</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychologist" title="Psychologist">Psychologist</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><a href="Basic_science_(psychology)" title="Basic science (psychology)">Basic <br>psychology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abnormal_psychology" title="Abnormal psychology">Abnormal</a></li>

<li><a href="Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective neuroscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Affective_science" title="Affective science">Affective science</a></li>

<li><a href="Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive</a>/<a href="Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">Cognitive neuroscience</a>

<ul><li><a href="Social_cognitive_neuroscience" title="Social cognitive neuroscience">Social</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Comparative_psychology" title="Comparative psychology">Comparative</a></li>

<li><a href="Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_psychology" title="Cultural psychology">Cultural</a></li>

<li><a href="Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">Developmental</a></li>

<li><a href="Differential_psychology" title="Differential psychology">Differential</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecological_psychology" title="Ecological psychology">Ecological</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary</a></li>

<li><a href="Experimental_psychology" title="Experimental psychology">Experimental</a></li>

<li><a href="Gestalt_psychology" title="Gestalt psychology">Gestalt</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_intelligence" title="Human intelligence">Intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathematical_psychology" title="Mathematical psychology">Mathematical</a></li>

<li><a href="Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li>

<li><a href="Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">Personality</a></li>

<li><a href="Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">Psycholinguistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychophysiology" title="Psychophysiology">Psychophysiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantitative_psychology" title="Quantitative psychology">Quantitative</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social</a></li>

<li><a href="Theoretical_psychology" title="Theoretical psychology">Theoretical</a></li></ul>

</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><a href="Applied_psychology" title="Applied psychology">Applied <br>psychology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anomalistic_psychology" title="Anomalistic psychology">Anomalistic</a></li>

<li><a href="Applied_behavior_analysis" title="Applied behavior analysis">Applied behavior analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychological_testing" title="Psychological testing">Assessment</a></li>

<li><a href="Aviation_psychology" title="Aviation psychology">Aviation</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychobiography" title="Psychobiography">Biography of famous people</a></li>

<li><a href="Clinical_psychology" title="Clinical psychology">Clinical</a></li>

<li><a href="Coaching_psychology" title="Coaching psychology">Coaching</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychology_of_color" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychology of color">Color</a></li>

<li><a href="Community_psychology" title="Community psychology">Community</a></li>

<li><a href="Consumer_behaviour" title="Consumer behaviour">Consumer</a></li>

<li><a href="Counseling_psychology" title="Counseling psychology">Counseling</a></li>

<li><a href="Critical_psychology" title="Critical psychology">Critical</a></li>

<li><a href="Educational_psychology" title="Educational psychology">Educational</a></li>

<li><a href="Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Ergonomics</a></li>

<li><a href="Fashion_psychology" title="Fashion psychology">Fashion</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_psychology" title="Feminist psychology">Feminist</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_psychology" title="Forensic psychology">Forensic</a></li>

<li><a href="Health_psychology" title="Health psychology">Health</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychohistory" title="Psychohistory">History</a></li>

<li><a href="Humanistic_psychology" title="Humanistic psychology">Humanistic</a></li>

<li><a href="Industrial_and_organizational_psychology" title="Industrial and organizational psychology">Industrial and organizational</a></li>

<li><a href="Legal_psychology" title="Legal psychology">Legal</a></li>

<li><a href="Media_psychology" title="Media psychology">Media</a></li>

<li><a href="Medical_psychology" title="Medical psychology">Medical</a></li>

<li><a href="Military_psychology" title="Military psychology">Military</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Music psychology">Music</a></li>

<li><a href="Occupational_health_psychology" title="Occupational health psychology">Occupational health</a></li>

<li><a href="Pastoral_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Pastoral psychology">Pastoral</a></li>

<li><a href="Peace_psychology" title="Peace psychology">Peace and war</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_psychology" title="Political psychology">Political</a></li>

<li><a href="Positive_psychology" title="Positive psychology">Positive</a></li>

<li><a href="Photo_psychology" title="Photo psychology">Photography</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychotherapy" title="Psychotherapy">Psychotherapy</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Religion</a></li>

<li><a href="School_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="School psychology">School</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">Sex differences</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_psychology" title="Space psychology">Space</a></li>

<li><a href="Sport_psychology" title="Sport psychology">Sport and exercise</a></li>

<li><a href="Suicidology" title="Suicidology">Suicidology</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_psychology" title="Systems psychology">Systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Stock_trader" title="Stock trader">Trading</a></li>

<li><a href="Traffic_psychology" title="Traffic psychology">Traffic</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><a href="List_of_psychological_research_methods" title="List of psychological research methods">Methodologies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Animal_testing" title="Animal testing">Animal testing</a></li>

<li><a href="Archival_research" title="Archival research">Archival research</a></li>

<li><a href="Behavioral_epigenetics" title="Behavioral epigenetics">Behavior epigenetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Case_study" title="Case study">Case study</a></li>

<li><a href="Content_analysis" title="Content analysis">Content analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Experimental_psychology" title="Experimental psychology">Experiments</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_subject_research" title="Human subject research">Human subject research</a></li>

<li><a href="Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interviews</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">Neuroimaging</a></li>

<li><a href="Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychophysics" title="Psychophysics">Psychophysics</a></li>

<li><a href="Qualitative_psychological_research" title="Qualitative psychological research">Qualitative research</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantitative_psychological_research" title="Quantitative psychological research">Quantitative research</a></li>

<li><a href="Self-report_inventory" title="Self-report inventory">Self-report inventory</a></li>

<li><a href="Survey_methodology" title="Survey methodology">Statistical surveys</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt">

<ul><li><a href="Behavior" title="Behavior">Behavior</a></li>

<li><a href="Applied_behavior_analysis" title="Applied behavior analysis">Behavioral engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li>

<li><a href="Competence_(polyseme)" title="Competence (polyseme)">Competence</a></li>

<li><a href="Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li>

<li><a href="Consumer_behaviour" title="Consumer behaviour">Consumer behavior</a></li>

<li><a href="Emotion" title="Emotion">Emotions</a></li>

<li><a href="Feeling" title="Feeling">Feelings</a></li>

<li><a href="Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Human factors and ergonomics</a></li>

<li><a href="Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Maslow's_hierarchy_of_needs" title="Maslow's hierarchy of needs">Maslow's hierarchy of needs</a></li>

<li><a href="Mental_state" title="Mental state">Mental state</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Psychology of religion</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">Sex differences</a></li>

<li><a href="Terror_management_theory" title="Terror management theory">Terror management theory</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="List_of_psychologists" title="List of psychologists">Psychologists</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Wilhelm_Wundt" title="Wilhelm Wundt">Wilhelm Wundt</a></li>

<li><a href="William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li>

<li><a href="Ivan_Pavlov" title="Ivan Pavlov">Ivan Pavlov</a></li>

<li><a href="Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a></li>

<li><a href="Edward_Thorndike" title="Edward Thorndike">Edward Thorndike</a></li>

<li><a href="John_B._Watson" title="John B. Watson">John B. Watson</a></li>

<li><a href="Clark_L._Hull" title="Clark L. Hull">Clark L. Hull</a></li>

<li><a href="Kurt_Lewin" title="Kurt Lewin">Kurt Lewin</a></li>

<li><a href="Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget">Jean Piaget</a></li>

<li><a href="Gordon_Allport" title="Gordon Allport">Gordon Allport</a></li>

<li><a href="J._P._Guilford" title="J. P. Guilford">J. P. Guilford</a></li>

<li><a href="Carl_Rogers" title="Carl Rogers">Carl Rogers</a></li>

<li><a href="Erik_Erikson" title="Erik Erikson">Erik Erikson</a></li>

<li><a href="B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">B. F. Skinner</a></li>

<li><a href="Donald_O._Hebb" title="Donald O. Hebb">Donald O. Hebb</a></li>

<li><a href="Ernest_Hilgard" title="Ernest Hilgard">Ernest Hilgard</a></li>

<li><a href="Harry_Harlow" title="Harry Harlow">Harry Harlow</a></li>

<li><a href="Raymond_Cattell" title="Raymond Cattell">Raymond Cattell</a></li>

<li><a href="Abraham_Maslow" title="Abraham Maslow">Abraham Maslow</a></li>

<li><a href="Neal_E._Miller" title="Neal E. Miller">Neal E. Miller</a></li>

<li><a href="Jerome_Bruner" title="Jerome Bruner">Jerome Bruner</a></li>

<li><a href="Donald_T._Campbell" title="Donald T. Campbell">Donald T. Campbell</a></li>

<li><a href="Hans_Eysenck" title="Hans Eysenck">Hans Eysenck</a></li>

<li><a href="Herbert_A._Simon" title="Herbert A. Simon">Herbert A. Simon</a></li>

<li><a href="David_McClelland" title="David McClelland">David McClelland</a></li>

<li><a href="Leon_Festinger" title="Leon Festinger">Leon Festinger</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Armitage_Miller" title="George Armitage Miller">George A. Miller</a></li>

<li><a href="Richard_Lazarus" title="Richard Lazarus">Richard Lazarus</a></li>

<li><a href="Stanley_Schachter" title="Stanley Schachter">Stanley Schachter</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Zajonc" title="Robert Zajonc">Robert Zajonc</a></li>

<li><a href="Albert_Bandura" title="Albert Bandura">Albert Bandura</a></li>

<li><a href="Roger_Brown_(psychologist)" title="Roger Brown (psychologist)">Roger Brown</a></li>

<li><a href="Endel_Tulving" title="Endel Tulving">Endel Tulving</a></li>

<li><a href="Lawrence_Kohlberg" title="Lawrence Kohlberg">Lawrence Kohlberg</a></li>

<li><a href="Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a></li>

<li><a href="Ulric_Neisser" title="Ulric Neisser">Ulric Neisser</a></li>

<li><a href="Jerome_Kagan" title="Jerome Kagan">Jerome Kagan</a></li>

<li><a href="Walter_Mischel" title="Walter Mischel">Walter Mischel</a></li>

<li><a href="Elliot_Aronson" title="Elliot Aronson">Elliot Aronson</a></li>

<li><a href="Daniel_Kahneman" title="Daniel Kahneman">Daniel Kahneman</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Ekman" title="Paul Ekman">Paul Ekman</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_Posner_(psychologist)" title="Michael Posner (psychologist)">Michael Posner</a></li>

<li><a href="Amos_Tversky" title="Amos Tversky">Amos Tversky</a></li>

<li><a href="Bruce_McEwen" title="Bruce McEwen">Bruce McEwen</a></li>

<li><a href="Larry_Squire" title="Larry Squire">Larry Squire</a></li>

<li><a href="Richard_E._Nisbett" title="Richard E. Nisbett">Richard E. Nisbett</a></li>

<li><a href="Martin_Seligman" title="Martin Seligman">Martin Seligman</a></li>

<li><a href="Ed_Diener" title="Ed Diener">Ed Diener</a></li>

<li><a href="Shelley_E._Taylor" title="Shelley E. Taylor">Shelley E. Taylor</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Robert_Anderson_(psychologist)" title="John Robert Anderson (psychologist)">John Anderson</a></li>

<li><a href="Ronald_C._Kessler" title="Ronald C. Kessler">Ronald C. Kessler</a></li>

<li><a href="Joseph_E._LeDoux" title="Joseph E. LeDoux">Joseph E. LeDoux</a></li>

<li><a href="Richard_Davidson" title="Richard Davidson">Richard Davidson</a></li>

<li><a href="Susan_Fiske" title="Susan Fiske">Susan Fiske</a></li>

<li><a href="Roy_Baumeister" title="Roy Baumeister">Roy Baumeister</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Outline_of_counseling" title="Outline of counseling">Counseling topics</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_branches_of_psychology" title="List of branches of psychology">Disciplines</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_psychology_organizations" title="List of psychology organizations">Organizations</a></li>

<li><a href="Outline_of_psychology" title="Outline of psychology">Outline</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_psychologists" title="List of psychologists">Psychologists</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_psychotherapies" title="List of psychotherapies">Psychotherapies</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_psychological_research_methods" title="List of psychological research methods">Research methods</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_psychological_schools" title="List of psychological schools">Schools of thought</a></li>

<li><a href="Timeline_of_psychology" title="Timeline of psychology">Timeline</a></li>

<li><a href="Index_of_psychology_articles" title="Index of psychology articles">Topics</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background:#DFEBFF;"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li>

<li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/psychology" class="extiw external" title="wiktionary:psychology">Wiktionary definition</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:en:Psychology" class="extiw external" title="wiktionary:Category:en:Psychology">Wiktionary category</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Category:Psychology" class="extiw external" title="wikisource:Category:Psychology">Wikisource</a></li>

<li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/category:Psychology" class="extiw external" title="commons:category:Psychology">Wikimedia Commons</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Psychology" class="extiw external" title="wikiquote:Psychology">Wikiquote</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Psychology" class="extiw external" title="wikinews:Special:Search/Psychology">Wikinews</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Psychology" class="extiw external" title="wikibooks:Psychology">Wikibooks</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_mind296" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Philosophy_of_mind296" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a></li>

<li><a href="Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">Armstrong</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li>

<li><a href="J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">J. L. Austin</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexander_Bain_(philosopher)" title="Alexander Bain (philosopher)">Alexander Bain</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li>

<li><a href="Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</a></li>

<li><a href="Ned_Block" title="Ned Block">Ned Block</a></li>

<li><a href="Franz_Brentano" title="Franz Brentano">Franz Brentano</a></li>

<li><a href="C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">C. D. Broad</a></li>

<li><a href="Tyler_Burge" title="Tyler Burge">Tyler Burge</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Chalmers" title="David Chalmers">David Chalmers</a></li>

<li><a href="Patricia_Churchland" title="Patricia Churchland">Patricia Churchland</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Churchland" title="Paul Churchland">Paul Churchland</a></li>

<li><a href="Andy_Clark" title="Andy Clark">Andy Clark</a></li>

<li><a href="Dharmakirti" title="Dharmakirti">Dharmakirti</a></li>

<li><a href="Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a></li>

<li><a href="Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li>

<li><a href="Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li>

<li><a href="Fred_Dretske" title="Fred Dretske">Fred Dretske</a></li>

<li><a href="Jerry_Fodor" title="Jerry Fodor">Fodor</a></li>

<li><a href="Alvin_Goldman" title="Alvin Goldman">Goldman</a></li>

<li><a href="Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li>

<li><a href="Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a></li>

<li><a href="William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li>

<li><a href="Frank_Cameron_Jackson" title="Frank Cameron Jackson">Frank Cameron Jackson</a></li>

<li><a href="Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis (philosopher)</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li>

<li><a href="Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a></li>

<li><a href="Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Maurice Merleau-Ponty</a></li>

<li><a href="Marvin_Minsky" title="Marvin Minsky">Marvin Minsky</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Thomas Nagel</a></li>

<li><a href="Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a></li>

<li><a href="Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>

<li><a href="Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li>

<li><a href="Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Richard Rorty</a></li>

<li><a href="Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a></li>

<li><a href="Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a></li>

<li><a href="Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li>

<li><a href="Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_Tye_(philosopher)" title="Michael Tye (philosopher)">Michael Tye</a></li>

<li><a href="Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a></li>

<li><a href="Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li>

<li><a href="Stephen_Yablo" title="Stephen Yablo">Stephen Yablo</a></li>

<li><a href="Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuangzi</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li>

<li><a href="Biological_naturalism" title="Biological naturalism">Biological naturalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminative materialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Emergent_materialism" title="Emergent materialism">Emergent materialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Interactionism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Interactionism (philosophy of mind)">Interactionism</a></li>

<li><a href="Na%C3%AFve_realism" title="Naïve realism">Naïve realism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Neurophenomenology" title="Neurophenomenology">Neurophenomenology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Neutral_monism" title="Neutral monism">Neutral monism</a></li>

<li><a href="New_mysterianism" title="New mysterianism">New mysterianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Nondualism" title="Nondualism">Nondualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Occasionalism" title="Occasionalism">Occasionalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychophysical_parallelism" title="Psychophysical parallelism">Parallelism</a></li>

<li><a href="Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>

<li><a href="Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Type_physicalism" title="Type physicalism">Type physicalism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Property_dualism" title="Property dualism">Property dualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Representational</a></li>

<li><a href="Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li>

<li><a href="Substance_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Substance dualism">Substance dualism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract object</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal_machine" title="Animal machine">Animal machine</a></li>

<li><a href="Chinese_room" title="Chinese room">Chinese room</a></li>

<li><a href="Creativity" title="Creativity">Creativity</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_closure_(philosophy)" title="Cognitive closure (philosophy)">Cognitive closure</a></li>

<li><a href="Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li>

<li><a href="Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li>

<li><a href="Hard_problem_of_consciousness" title="Hard problem of consciousness">Hard problem of consciousness</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">Hypostatic abstraction</a></li>

<li><a href="Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity</a></li>

<li><a href="Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a>

<ul><li><a href="Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_intelligence" title="Human intelligence">Human</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Intentionality" title="Intentionality">Intentionality</a></li>

<li><a href="Intuition" title="Intuition">Intuition</a></li>

<li><a href="Language_of_thought_hypothesis" title="Language of thought hypothesis">Language of thought</a></li>

<li><a href="Mental_event" title="Mental event">Mental event</a></li>

<li><a href="Mental_image" title="Mental image">Mental image</a></li>

<li>Mental process</li>

<li><a href="Mental_state" title="Mental state">Mental property</a></li>

<li><a href="Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li>

<li><a href="Mind%E2%80%93body_problem" title="Mind–body problem">Mind–body problem</a></li>

<li><a href="Problem_of_other_minds" title="Problem of other minds">Problem of other minds</a></li>

<li><a href="Propositional_attitude" title="Propositional attitude">Propositional attitude</a></li>

<li><a href="Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li>

<li><a href="Tabula_rasa" title="Tabula rasa">Tabula rasa</a></li>

<li><a href="Understanding" title="Understanding">Understanding</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophical_zombie" title="Philosophical zombie">Zombie</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Philosophy of artificial intelligence</a> / <a href="Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">information</a> / <a href="Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">perception</a> / <a href="Philosophy_of_self" title="Philosophy of self">self</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li>Category</li>

<li>Philosophers category</li>

<li>Project</li>

<li>Task Force</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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